Discussing Neumans System Model and its Application

Discussing Neumans System Model and its Application One of the most important contributions in the field of nursing is the publication of the Neumans System Model. Betty Neuman, a nursing theorist believes on a comprehensive wholistic and systematic perspective on learning. She aims to develop a system that will help introductory nursing students to learn the course and develop their over-all being. She assumes the existence of certain stressors where in certain preventions must also be formulated. This paper will present a brief background on the life and published works of Neuman. This will also include a detailed discussion on her systems model and the factors to consider when applying the model to certain situations. Lastly, given this model, how would a nursing student apply this to her current practice. 1. Introduction/Background a. Life/ school Betty Neuman, born in Ohio US has obtained her diploma as Registered Nurse in People Hospital School of Nursing (Ohio) in the year 1947. She worked in California as a head nurse and hospital staff, industrial nurse and school nurse. She has also engaged in clinical teaching in the following areas: communicable disease, medical- surgical and critical care. b. work/academic achievement/experiences She finished her baccalaureate degree with distinction in nursing in the year 1957. And in the year 1966, she received her masters degree in Mental Health, Public Health Consultation, from UCLA. In the year 1985, he received her doctoral degree in Clinical Psychology ffrom Pacific Western University. With this she started to incorporate and become pioneer in incorporating nursing involvement in mental health. She developed a model from in response to the needs of graduate nursing students who wished to have a course or a program that will expose them to an in-depth breadth of nursing problems. With this, she created a conceptual framework or model for nursing that has been initially published in the year 1972 entitled: Model for Teaching Total Person Approach to Patient Problems in Nursing Research. Along with this model, she refined and reviewed some aspects in for her published book entitled: The Neuman Systems Model: Application to Nursing Education and Practice. Neumans model has been reviewed as holistic, comprehensive, flexible and system based perspective for nursing. It primary attention has been focused on client response system towards the potential and actual environmental stressors. And she used all steps from primary to tertiary nursing prevention, intervention for retention, maintenance and attainment for a holistic wellness of clients. c. List of few works that is published. The Neuman Systems Model This work was published in the Nursing Research in 1872. She developed this model as a way to teach introductory nursing course to beginning nursing students. This aims to provide wholistic overview to the four aspects of a person. These four aspects are psychological, physiological, developmental and sociocultural. DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL The Neuman Systems Model presents a systems-based framework for viewing individuals, families or communities. It is based on general systems theory with the client viewed as an open system, which reacts and adapts to both internal and external stressors.   NSM is based on numerous concepts and sub concepts, some of which are: stress, adaptation, homeostasis, levels of prevention, intra, inter and extra personal factors, optimal wellness and basic structure. The following description of the model is a brief summary of the description found in the original publication (Neuman Young 1972) with examples added by the authors. In this explanation of the model the client will be considered to be an individual. The client system is represented by a series of solid and broken circles. The central circle is the basic structure or energy source, which includes basic survival factors common to the species. Some examples are genetic response patterns, strengths or weaknesses of body organs and normal temperature range. The basic structure also consists of characteristics which are unique   to a given individual or client such as innate musical talent. The outer most solid circle is referred to as the   normal line of defense and represents the individuals normal state of wellness or the usual state of adaptation, which the person has maintained over time.   The broken line outside the normal line of defense is the flexible line of defense. It acts as a buffer or protection to the normal line of defense. Ideally it will prevent stressors from invading the client system by blocking or defusing stressors before they are able to attack the normal line of defense. The flexible line of defense is accordion like in its function. When it is expanded greater protection is provided. When it is narrowed and therefore closer to the normal line of defense, its ability to protect is diminished. The NSM also includes the concept of prevention at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels. This concept is of particular importance to those who work in the helping professions. Interventions can occur at a primary level to strengthen the flexible line of defense, at a secondary level to help restore the client system to equilibrium by treating symptoms that occur after penetration of the line of defense by a stressor or a at the tertiary level to prevent farther damage and maintain stability after reconstitution has occurred. INTERDISCIPLINARY FIT Although use of interdisciplinary teams is not new to health care industries, it has gained increasing favor in the environment   of health care reform as evidenced by governmental recommendations and guidelines (U S Bureau of Health Professions, 1995) and position statements from professional organizations (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1995). The trend in nursing is to collaborate with other health care disciplines as well as with clients. Use of   interdisciplinary health care (IHC) teams can facilitate the emergence of holistic client care goals from teams of diverse health care specialists. Upheaval in the health care industry is affecting   all health professions. In the movement for health care reform, emphasis is being placed on such things as the need for health promotion, coordinated care, and reduction in cost. Some of the watchwords are prevention, wellness and healthy lifestyles. Concepts in the NSM are parallels to those watch words. Therefore, it is not surprising that use of the N.S.M. as a framework for interdisciplinary health care practice is increasing, not only in the United States but also around the world. In Neuman (1995), Lowry, Walker and Mirenda state the following:   The Neuman Systems Model is clearly poised and ready for the challenges of the future. Sometimes characterized in the past as too broad, complex and comprehensive, the model is coming in to its own with the challenges of the 21st century. The complexities of the global society, of crises in health care delivery, and of changing patterns and dangers from the environment provide stimulus for new applications of the Neuman Systems Model. The model is not   only broad and comprehensive enough to provide structure for nursing interventions, but also for other disciplines interested in focusing on wellness and holistic care for patients and clients . . . . The ongoing use and scholarly development of the Neuman Systems Model in practice, education, FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN INCORPORATING THE NSM Understanding the Model Understanding the model is the first step to incorporation of the NSM in any   practice setting. There is much   flexibility in how this can take place, such as providing classes with an expert lecturing on the model, sending staff to NSM symposiums, holding a series of classes in which lecture and discussion focus on various aspects of the N.S.M. or taking the approach used by the authors   in which team members used the model to develop treatment protocols for actual cases. During the practice sessions, cases from team members lived experience quickly and effectively brought the NSM from the level of theory to that of application and allowed the team to experience the fit of the model to their institution and individual philosophies. Learning the Language of the Model Learning the language of the model is not a significant problem for most health   care professionals. As stated earlier, the model promotes synthesis of knowledge from areas of study which form the matrix for nursing education. That matrix has elements common to the educational foundations of other health care professions. Each of the five variables, i.e. physiological, psychological, socio-cultural, developmental and spiritual, is associated with a field of knowledge that forms the base for practice in some health care related profession. For example, medicine, psychology, physical therapy, social work, and marriage and family counseling, share portions of the educational matrix associated with nursing. Thus they are able, for the most part, to speak the language of the NSM, and make major contributions to an interdisciplinary health care team which uses the model. However, because of the breadth of   the NSM, other theories, some of which are profession specific, can and must b e related to the assessment and intervention processes. All team members must be sensitive to the particular language of their discipline (Morrissey, 1989) and must clarify to other members where appropriate. A common language will assist in development of unity among team participants.   It is helpful to establish as a group norm the expectation that each member is responsible to ask for and expect to receive clarification of all unfamiliar terminology used by any other team member. It is not unusual for clergy to have an educational background dissimilar to that of the health care professions. The spiritual expert on our team, a professor of religion who is also a lay minister, was the team member least familiar with terminology used in the NSM. Conversely, other members of the team were at times unfamiliar with certain religious terminology. In those instances when team members have dissimilar backgrounds, extra time and effort may be required for the team to learn to speak a common language. In summary, the primary reason the NSM adapts well to interdisciplinary use is because it was developed on the premise that the practice of holistic health care must be built on a foundation   of synthesized knowledge and interdisciplinary cooperation based in a common language and dynamic systems concepts (Neuman Young 1972). APPLICATION IN EDUCATION The team member, who represented expertise in human development, has developed and taught an interdisciplinary undergraduate course in general systems theory using the NSM as the main example for application of general systems theory in the clinical setting. Using the NSM, a case study and the Interdisciplinary Assessment Form, students assess the clients needs and determine which member of an interdisciplinary health care team would be the most appropriate care coordinator for the client. The team has developed a proposal for an honors course which would be open to any honors student interested in the health care professions or behavioral sciences. The course will be built on the   NSM and emphasize use of an interdisciplinary team for assessing and intervening in   client problems. A case study approach will be used. All members on the team will   participate in teaching with each member presenting information related to his/her major area of expertise. At the administrative and faculty level, interest in this course is generated by a desire for increased interdisciplinary activity on the Brigham Young University campus. INCORPORATING THE MODEL WITH MY DAILY PRACTICE Given this Neuman Systems Model and as a sub-acute practice nurse, I can apply this by following these steps: 1. Understand that my patients are unique and different from one another. One may respond to one stressor in a heavy manner and another may not. 2. Since I am a sub-acute nurse, and I am dealing with patients that are recovering from previous illnesses, I will assume that all stressors, light or heavy will contribute   a big factor on the recovery of my patient. This conjecture will help me not to be complacent with handling my patient. 3. Improve my communication with my patient by asking him or her about the stressor he or she experiences. Identify and evaluate the situations or events that contributes to this stressor. 4. Make an effort in researching and working on the proper preventions for the stressors my patient is exposed to. 5. Bear in mind that every little thing I do affect the wellness or illness of my patient. The theory emphases the wholistic care for better welfare and wellness to the patient as well to the health provider (doctors, nurse and sabacute nurse), just like other interventions it would brings enrichment to the patient and to its provider leading to areas that would increase the specialization. In this case as a sabacute nurse it is a better opportunity to enhance my daily work because it will support and develop my skills. SUMMARY This interdisciplinary health care team experience has enhanced the level of our professional expertise and has enriched both our professional and personal lives. The experience of coming together for the good of the client has its own intrinsic value. We believe that, with a history of increasing health care specialization and compartmentalization, the work of interdisciplinary health care teams using a wholistic model of care is one of the few health care options leading toward increased levels of wellness for all people in all countries.

Nutrition Essay -- Health Nutrition Pyramid Diet

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Table of Contents Nutrition Therapy  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1 Nutrition Consult  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1 Meal planning  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2 Body Weight Considerations  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2 Psychosocial support.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3 Calorie Intake  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4 Nutrient Composition of the Diet  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4 Fat Intake  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  5 Carbohydrate Intake  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  6 Sucrose  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  6 Fructose  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  6 Vitamins and Minerals  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  7 Alcohol Intake  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  7 References  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  8 Nutrition Therapy The most fundamental component of the diabetes treatment plan for all patients with type II diabetes is medical nutrition therapy. Specific goals of nutrition therapy in type II diabetes are to:[1] Achieve and maintain as near-normal blood glucose levels as possible by balancing food intake with physical activity, supplemented by oral hypoglycemic agents or insulin (endogenous or exogenous) as needed Normalize blood pressure Normalize serum lipid levels Help patients attain and maintain a reasonable body weight (defined as the weight an individual and health-care provider acknowledge as possible to achieve and maintain on a short- and long-term basis) Promote overall health through optimal nutrition and lifestyle behaviors. Because no single dietary approach is appropriate for all patients, given the heterogeneous nature of type II diabetes, meal plans and diet modifications should be individualized to meet a patient's unique needs and lifestyle. Accordingly, any nutrition intervention should be based on a thorough assessment of a patient's typical food intake and eating habits and should include an evaluation of current nutritional status. Some patients with mild-to-moderate diabetes can be effectively treated with an appropriate balance of diet modification and exercise as the sole therapeutic intervention, particularly if their fasting blood glucose level is < 200 mg/dL. The majority of patients, however, will require pharmacologic intervention in addition to diet and exercise prescriptions. It is important to note that ... ...ng insulin or sulfonylureas are susceptible to hypoglycemia if alcohol is consumed on an empty stomach. Therefore, these individuals should make sure to take any desired alcohol with a meal. Patients with diabetes and coexisting medical problems such as pancreatitis, dyslipidemis, or neuropathy may need to reduce or abstain from alcohol intake. References American Diabetes Association. Medical Management of Non-insulin-dependent (Type II) Diabetes, 3rd ed. Alexandria, Va: American Diabetes Association; 1994:22-39. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes 1996 Vital Statistics. Alexandria, Va: American Diabetes Association; 1996. Davidson MB. Diabetes Mellitus: Diagnosis and Treatment, 3rd ed. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1991:35-93. Henry RR. Protein content of the diabetic diet. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:1502-1513. Mudaliar SR, Henry RR. Role of glycemic control and protein restriction in clinical management of diabetic kidney disease. Endocr Pract. 1996;2:220-226. American Diabetes Association. Clinical practice recommendations 1995. Position statement: nutrition recommendations and principles for people with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 1995;18(suppl 1):16-19.

Saving Lancaster :: essays papers

Saving Lancaster There are problems facing people everyday, some worse than others, but none anymore pleasant. We see problems ranging from the environment to crime, gangs, diseases, wars and so many more. William Finnegan saw a major problem arising for the residents of Lancaster, California where he went to find out why two skin head gangs are so prevalent in the area. Parents working low wage jobs for long hours far from home made absent parents a huge problem as well as lack of education greatly due to poor funding. Finding the causes of large social problems helps to discover solutions and get people thinking about problems instead of just accepting them. A solution that would have a large impact on the city would be to use cooperate welfare to bring big business to the area, because it will help create local jobs, a circulation of money, and more money for better educational facilities and teachers. Many people would agree that Cooperate welfare is a problem in it self and are strongly against it. However, it is very common and does serve positive purposes. Cooperate welfare gives tax breaks and other incentives to encourage big businesses to come to a certain area. If the Antelope Valley could get businesses into the over populated city they would be able to provide local jobs for many families. This is important, because many of the parents in the valley are just making enough to get by. Both parents are usually forced to work and a major percentage of these families are single parent households with one income. They end up working long hours at low wages and for that reason are unable to be home for their children. The children begin going elsewhere to look for a place of company after school. Education starts in the home, so already they are losing out on half of the valuable education they need. Funding for schools comes from the government and it's obvious that richer areas have better schools. Cooperate welfare would bring more money to the area which would provide better funding for schools. Once a better educational system is established the schools can work on programs teaching kids about ignorance and racism at an early age. Also, providing sport teams, music classes, and other activities for children to get involved in would help keep more kids in school. Teen boredom seemed to be another major factor driving teens to the gang life. Getting businesses like dance clubs for minors, boys and girls clubs, movie theaters, shopping

Globalisation and trade liberalization are worldwide phenomena that hav

Globalisation and trade liberalization are worldwide phenomena that have significantly changed Australia's trading relationships over the past decades. Globalisation and trade liberalization are worldwide phenomena that have significantly changed Australia's trading relationships over the past decades. Traditionally , Australia is a highly protected country against foreign competitors by using methods of protection such as tariffs and subsidies. However, since the 1980s Aust and many of the world economies has faced substantial reductions in trade barriers in order to promote what we known as Free Trade. Australia gradually reduced its trade protections, which can be any actions by national governments that will give an artificial competitive advantage to domestic producers over foreign producers. The changes to the free trade and protection policies has caused a significant improvement in the number of Free Trade Agreements (FTA) and a shift in Australia's trading relationships, which in turn has affected firms, individuals and also the Australian government. Since the mid 1970s, Australia has started to reduce protection by cutting tariffs, tax on imports, from average tariff levels of 23% in 1968 -69 to 4.4% in 2001. Traditionally, the highly subsidized industries (any form of support to keep domestic industries competitive) are sectors such as motor vehicle and textile, clothing and footwear (TCF). These industries have a fixed low tariff level between 2000 - 2005, to allow them to restructure and become more internationally competitive. Australia's tariff reduction levels have gone way below those required by international trade agreement such as WTO agreement and the APEC. Australia in the last ... ...d this would affect the voting ratios for the government as benefits of tariff reductions and free trade promotion would take a much longer period to arrive. Through the significant change of Australia's protection levels and the promotion of free trade, it is obvious that Australia's major trading partners is shifting from European countries to the high trading potential Asian countries. This is due the enormous demand in many developing countries, which results in a greater market for export. This has brought a positive impact on Australia's primary base industries such as minerals, therefore increasing the amount of export revenue for Australia. Free trade and the reduction in Protection result in the better performance of export as it generates Australia's economic growth, which in turn benefits firms, individuals and the government sectors overall.

Anne Frank’s Post Capture Diary Essay

The following all takes place between the time of Anne Frank and family’s capture and her death in Bergen-Belsen Concentration Camp  4th August 1944  I don’t know what happened. I just don’t know. There is no way they could have found without some despicable, racist and selfish person turning us in. Margot hasn’t stopped crying. She is depending on me. I have to put on a brave face no matter how terrified I am of our destination and what awaits us there. The truck we are on smells of urine and something else disgusting I can’t imagine what is secreting out. They tell us that we are going to a prison where we can meet other scum like us. I think it is them who should be locked up. After all it is they themselves who are the scum†¦ 5th August 1944  We have arrived at our destination. I caught a glimpse of the name. We are in Weteringschan Prison. It means the prison of death. I can see why. Rotting corpses are all around. Many of us have vomited at the mere sight. However we have been told there is worse to come. I can’t imagine a worse place than this. I am beginning to feel an illness about me. If I am sickening for something this early on, I will never survive. Soon they are shipping us off to Westerbork. I assume that where I will perish. I’m so scared. I don’t know how much longer I can bear this†¦ August 8th 1944  This is it. I cannot go on living anymore. They separated myself and Margot from Mummy and Pim. I kicked up such a fuss that Margot had to pull me back to keep the guards from shooting me there and then. There are no words to describe how melancholy I am feeling right now. I just have to sleep and hope that this fiendish life is all just a nightmarish dream†¦Ã‚  September 3rd 1944  I was shaken awake by guards early this morning. I was not awake enough to catch all of what they said but I caught the gist of it. Auschwitz Death Camp. Those words stroke fear deep into my heart. All hope of survival drained instantly from my body. I didn’t have the energy to fight back, so I stumbled onto the train with what few belongings I had left and watched my screaming tearful mother reach out to us. I couldn’t stop crying for the whole journey. Why are the Nazis doing this to us? What have we ever done to upset anyone? I’ve tried to lead a good life but obviously god needs to make Jews repent for something. Maybe this is like Noah’s Ark. God is cleansing the Earth of all bad things. Maybe we are bad. Maybe we do deserve to die†¦ September 5th 1944  Westerbork isn’t as bad I thought. Apparently the Germans just let the Jews run the place as long we work hard. Me and Margot have been ‘sentenced’ to potato peeling. There are worse jobs out there! I still miss Mum and Pim so much though. I hope they’re okay†¦Ã‚  October 19th 1944  My hopes lifted when we were sent away form this horrible place. They descended back down again as soon as I realised we were just being transported to the worst place I had ever heard of. Bergen Belsen†¦ December 24th 1942  What a way to spend Christmas. Crammed in a dark dank hole with hundreds of others like us. There appears to be an outbreak of a disease with yellow pustules oozing blood in the rest of the tents. It is only a matter of time before it reaches me and Margot. Speaking of Margot, she is sickening a lot worse than me. She is as pale as a ghost. I don’t know how likely it is for her to pull through†¦ January 12th 1945  The Germans might as well have abandoned us. There is no food or water. Everyone is covered in mud and scars. We only have bits of cloth to cover ourselves with. Worst of all Margot is taking a new turn for the worse every day. She can’t even walk anymore. She spends all day in bed, just coughing and spluttering. The little food I get goes to her. I’m so cold. We can’t last much longer†¦Ã‚  19th March 1945  I can’t go on. I woke up this morning. Margot didn’t. I can’t even walk as I am so grief-stricken. All hope is lost. Hitler will conquer the world and it shall perish at his hands†¦Ã‚  It is believed Anne died within a few days of Margot. They both perished of Typhus in March 1945.

Child development Essay

The following essay will examine factors that affect a child’s learning and development. All children are distinctive individuals and differ in pattern and timing of maturation, as well as individual personality, learning style, cultural and family background. Each child has its own varying strengths, weaknesses, specific needs and skills. The age of a child is an effective indicator to the sequence of stages of development; however, it is only an estimation of maturation, as the mentioned independent factors will differ from child to child. The stages of development in children aged one to five years include the prenatal period, infancy, toddler stage, and early childhood and cover a plethora of progress in all areas of development. Expected changes in growth take place in all areas of development, particularly in the early years, and these include physical, intellectual, language, emotional, and social development. The first five years of life are crucial for expanding the foundations for learning and development. Research has shown that the developing child is learning to discover, communicate, and extend ideas about how things work. Read more: Factors that influence child development essay The successful progress of these abilities and skills depend largely on a child’s early environment. Parents, teachers, and care providers promote development and learning when they provide experiences that build on and extend the child’s capabilities. However, it is clear from evidence on both sides of the argument that development and learning result from a contribution of both biological factors and environmental factors. Empiricists believe environmental influences shape learning and development, while nativists emphasise inborn, genetic characteristics influence development (Bee, 2006b). Development could be described as an interactive relationship between the inherited qualities of an individual and the external environment. A child’s emotional and social development is shaped by internal influences, for example, a child may be inherently shy or outgoing, however the environment will also influence the child’s social and emotional development, such as successful first relationships, cultural values and how family and peers interact with the child, i. e. the child’s immediate social environment. Cognitive development could be influenced by internal factors. Research has shown that teratogens (legal or illegal drugs), smoking, alcohol consumption can have adverse affects on cognitive development (Bee, 2006 a). A study by Monuteaux, (2006) shows the negative effects of smoking on the development of a child, and there is speculative study that maternal diet and smoking could be causal factors of ADHD (Bakker, 2003). Scarr (1983) summarises the internal and external influences on children’s development, â€Å"Both genes and environments are constituents in the developmental system, but they have different roles. Genes direct the course of human experience, but experiential opportunities are also necessary for development to occur† (Scarr, 1983, pp. 433). It is interesting to consider cognitive development in children and the subsequent affect on learning and behaviour. Piaget was an influential Swiss psychologist who researched cognitive development. Piaget believes cognitive development transpires through a combination of direct experience from one’s environment and an instinctive structure of biological maturation. Piaget suggested individuals are born with intellect to serve as a basic function that assists adaptation to their environment (Shaffer, 1989). His theory proposes that development proceeds through a set of four stages from infancy to adulthood. Piaget believed that the first stage of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage; this occurs in the first two years of a child’s life and involves infants using motor skills and all the senses, sight, smell, touch etc to explore and gain an understanding of the environment. Preoperational stage progresses from the sensorimotor stage and includes the use of language to understand the environment, images and symbols are also used to represent the environment; this is from two to seven years of age. Piaget believed language is egocentric at this stage. The next stage is termed concrete operations and children begin to use logical thought processes to further their understanding and occurs from ages seven to eleven. Formal Operation is the last stage Piaget believes takes place in cognitive development and it involves the ability to use abstract thought processes. This is from eleven onwards (Shaffer, 1989). The central idea of Piaget’s cognitive theory is the attainment of schemas, and further assimilation and accommodation of these schemas constantly return the child to a state of equilibrium. A schema is any thought or object that one may have experienced and is then organised to aid coherence. Assimilation is the process of adding new information to enhance the understanding of an existing schema, and thus producing a new schema. Accommodation is the adjustment of an existing schema in order to include new information. Equilibration is the term Piaget uses to describe the balance a child reaches when it satisfied with a schema, new information places the child in a state of disequilibrium or imbalance, until, assimilation and accommodation allow equilibration to take place. As with all theories, Piaget was criticised for placing too much emphasis on environment and not considering social interaction as an impacting force (Cohen, 1993). It has also been suggested that children appear to have existing understanding of basic principles, e. g. a study by Gibson and Walk, used a ‘visual cliff’ where a checkerboard pattern continued several feet below a glass table. The test showed that infants as young as 5 months were able to perceive depth, and would not proceed when they reached the end of the ‘cliff’ (Bee, 2006b). This shows that many foundations of cognitive ability are already present and further learning will increase cognitive development. Vygotsky is another central figure in the domain of constructivist theory; however, he differs from Piaget in that Vygotsky places more emphasis on social learning and its effect on cognitive development. His theory focuses on a term he called ‘zone of proximal development’ and defined it as â€Å"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers† (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Vygotsky believed that learning takes place in this zone. The idea of ZPD suggests that cognitive development is established by social learning with capable peers or adults and cooperative analytical skills. In contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky stated that development was an intricate lifelong process that could not be defined into stages, but instead is to be examined as a means of development rather than an end. Vygotsky’s theory reflects correlation between learning and development. Newborn children are constantly learning from their experiences and they form understanding from theses experiences, Vygotsky, believes this learning is directly linked to sociocultural perspective. As they grow older, infants readily learn from observation and cooperative learning with peers and adults (Moyles, Miller) The psychodynamic approach addresses children’s learning by focusing on internal mechanisms, such as instincts, conflicts and unconscious forces. A familiar idea of this theory is that unconscious as well as conscious forces regulate behaviour. Freud suggested three intuitive drives for survival, the sexual drive to reproduce the human race, hunger and pain trigger the instinct to preserve one’s life and aggressive drives are the third force. Freud’s theory is criticised on many accounts, mostly that he suggests the main underlying cause of problems are sexually related, and secondly it is scientifically difficult to measure the hidden unconscious of a being. Freud’s theory implies that children learn behaviour through the progress of three stages. The newborn and infant are driven by what he termed the id; this is an inborn instinct, which demands instant gratification. As the child grows older, it learns that it cannot achieve instant gratification all the time, and the ego develops as an intermediary pacifier, which takes social contexts into consideration and delays gratification. The superego is the higher form of moral reasoning and is often considered as a parental restrictor, this last stage develops much later in development (Bee, 2006b). It can be seen how Freud’s theory affects social and emotional development and behaviour in the first five years, as most children at this age are controlled by the id and the developing ego. Erikson’s theory is often viewed as an extension of Freud’s psychosexual theory of Development. Erikson suggests that development progresses over a lifespan and he portrays this in his theory of the eight stages of psychosocial development. His theory proposes that each stage has a conflict within it that must be resolved before proceeding to the next stage; each stage presents the opportunity for success or failure. The first three stages are relevant in the first five years of a child’s life and include emotional, social and cognitive development on behaviour acquisition. The first stage is trust versus mistrust and takes place in the period of the first two years of infancy; this stage propounds an emotional crisis in which the child must successfully develop trust and security and emotional well-being. If the care provider does not reciprocate emotional care positively the child becomes mistrustful. Once the child has learned trust, it advances to the next stage of autonomy versus shame, and approximately takes place in early childhood. This stage concentrates on the child’s ability to develop confidence and a sense of independence. Children at this age (approximately two to four years) begin to manage small parts of their lives, and Erikson suggests toilet training is a huge feat in establishing independence in a child. It also consists of decision-making and choice over things like food, clothes etc, if a child is unsuccessful in this stage then it leads to shame and a feeling of inadequacy. The third stage occurs from about three to five years of age, and incorporates the child’s ability to play and develop social skills of leadership or subordination, power and a sense of self. If the child cannot overcome the crisis then inhibition, fear and a prolonged development are the result. The successful child proceeds to the next stage and so forth (Brain 2005) The humanistic perspective argues that behaviour is subjective as individuals determine and control their own thoughts and actions. Maslow hypothesised a hierarchy of need, in which each level of the hierarchy had to be satisfied before the human need moved on to the next level. For example, according to Maslow’s hierarchy it is not perceived that an individual would desire the comfort of a spouse or children, if basic physiological needs such as food and water were not satisfied (Bee 2006a). Children develop and learn most productively in the environment of a community where they are safe and valued, and their emotional and physiological needs fulfilled. If physical nourishment is transpiring then Maslow’s theory depicts emotional well-being as an important factor, certainly all aspects of development are influenced by successfully accomplishing positive first relationships. This provides the constructive foundation for effective social and emotional development, which will inadvertently affect cognitive development as well. Skinner constructed a theory he termed operant conditioning, and based it on the notion that learning is a means of behaviour modification. His experiments show how he conditioned rats to pull a lever to release food, the incentive for the rats was the food and the required behaviour was pulling the lever. The theory illustrates that changes in behaviour are the consequences of an individual’s reaction to incentives that occur in any given environment; subsequently the reaction will produce an outcome. When a specific response is reinforced, behaviour is conditioned, and the individual will respond to a stimulus to achieve its incentive; the result will be consistent each time. The crucial aspect of Skinner’s model is reinforcement, a particular behaviour can be acquired through reward, and certain behaviours prevented through punishment (Brain, 2005). Skinner’s theory belongs to the Behaviourist approach and is effective in explaining some of the causes and modifications of behaviour; it is often used in schools to elicit particular behaviours from children (usually in the form of sweets or stickers). Social learning theory clarifies behaviour in terms of consistent equal correlation between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental influences. Social learning theory has four main components, attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation, which cover physical, cognitive and behavioural development. Attention requires concentration so that the events are observed accurately. Retention includes the intellectual organization of information in order to store it effectively in the memory and remember the correct processes of events. Motor reproduction includes the physical ability to imitate the behaviour, for example, a human is not physically able to fly like superman. Motivation involves the child to be willing and motivated to imitate the behaviour. The observed consequences of a particular behaviour (whether punished or rewarded) may influence a child’s decision to imitate or not, Bandura called this modeling (Brain 205) One of the famous experiments conducted by Albert Bandura, known as the ‘Bobo doll’ experiment revealed that children imitated aggressive physical and verbal behaviour towards the dolls, exactly as they had observed, whereas the children who observed non-aggressive behaviour displayed practically no aggressive behaviour (Shaffer, 1989). Bandura suggests that social behaviour is learned primarily by observing and imitating the actions of others. Children are often observed imitating adults in role-play. Punishment and reward are also influences on behavioural development as mentioned in Skinner’s theory, for example, a child may observe a peer being rewarded with a sticker for tidying up and then learn that to obtain a sticker s/he must also tidy up. This theory facilitates an understanding of how behaviour is acquired and how it may be modified. John Bowlby developed attachment theory and he suggested that first relationships are the basis for young children’s development, predominantly their social and emotional development. Bowlby (1979: 129) states â€Å"†¦ attachment behaviour is held to characterize human beings from the cradle to the grave†; much of Bowlby’s work was on the maternal bond that develops with a child. He believed that the connection between mother and child, or caregiver and child has a basic gentle and evolutionary basis, in order for the child to receive appropriate care, protection and nourishment; it has a tendency to maintain nearness to the main caregiver. Bowlby maintained that a child displays attachment behaviour when separated from the main care provider, first as protest, then despair and finally as detachment. First relationships can be summarised as â€Å"a deeply rooted motivational system that ensures close contact between babies and adult caregivers who can protect, nurture, and guide their development† (Shonkoff, 2000, p 230). Bowlby expanded and utilised various research to support his theory, one of his early works included research on delinquent adolescents and discovered maternal deprivation to be a recurring matter. Michael Rutter (1981) criticized Bowlby’s theory, and suggested that early experiences cannot be held as direct underlying causes for later emotional distress, Rutter believed it is more significant how children are looked after in the period of severance not the actual severance itself (Cowie, 2002). Bowlby introduced three stages of attachment, during the first pre-attachment phase (0-2 months) babies do not develop a particular attachment, and are content to be cared for by anyone. In the second phase (2-7 months) babies show a firm attachment to the main caregiver and cling to this figure when in the presence of a stranger, Bowlby termed this ‘stranger fear’. The last phase is around two years of age and is labelled separation anxiety, the infant is confident to move away from the main caregiver provided they remain physically present for the child to return to Brain (2005). Bowlby suggested that constant loving care and nurturing was essential during the crucial phase between approximately 6 months and 3 years of age, maternal deprivation or separation from the primary caregiver would result in considerable detrimental effects on social and emotional development of the child (Cowie, 2002). Harlow and Harlow’s famous experiment on Rhesus monkeys provided support to Bowlby’s theory (Bowlby, 1973). In these experiments, young monkeys were separated from their mother shortly after birth. Two wire monkeys were substituted as artificial surrogate mothers. The first monkey was made of wire mesh and provided food; however, the second monkey was covered with foam and cloth and only provided comfort. The young monkeys nursed at the wire monkey but sought contact with the cloth monkey. The experiment showed that infants need a mother’s love and comfort, and it proved that infants prefer proximity and comfort from a mother, rather than just using the mother for nourishment. The young monkeys clutched to the soft cloth doll and explored more when in the presence of the soft cloth doll, and the doll seemed to provide them with a sense of security. Infants reared without normal social interaction with other monkeys, displayed either fearful or aggressive behaviour and the effects were apparent from two years of age, well into adulthood (Brain 2005). The experiment portrayed the importance of warmth, love and comfort that a nurturing mother or primary carer provides is essential for intellectual, social and emotional development. Mary Ainsworth’s research was based on an experiment to observe attachment behaviour between a child and the primary caregiver (usually the mother) the experiment is known as the strange situation. The procedure involves a child playing in a room, meanwhile the caregiver and stranger alternately enter and leave the room, the child’s play behaviour and responses to caregiver and stranger are observed. The experiment placed children in four categories of attachment, secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant and disorganized. Attachment theorists are realizing that children differ from birth, but individual personalities and development are influenced by social experience, environment, and the attachment relationship is affected by the characteristics of both child and caregiver (Parkes, 1993) Cultural differences in child-rearing practices have various implications and meanings across cultures. Culture defines a set of beliefs and patterns of behaviour; this can be in a social, religious, societal or ethnic context. Culture clearly has an influence on the development of children, Edwards and Gandini (1989) point out that culture organises and translates children’s behaviour and development (Hinde, 1993). â€Å"To understand development we must come to terms with the ways in which individuals, in developing their own self-concepts and participating in social relationships, both shape and are shaped by their social and cultural environment† (Hinde, 1993). In a research paper Reebye, (2006) found various studies on cultural differences in child rearing and the impact this had on child development. Chen et al. (1998) studied reticent behaviour in Chinese and Canadian children and the child-rearing attitudes of the relative mothers. The results showed that Chinese babies were significantly more withdrawn and shy than their Canadian counterparts, and the underlying cause of this behaviour difference lay in parental styles and attitudes. Taciturn behaviour was positively associated with the Chinese mother’s approval, whereas the Canadian mothers negatively received it, which implies a variation of the connotation of behaviour inhibition across both cultures (Reebye, 2006). Another example Reebye (2006) presents is a study conducted by Marcovitchet al (1997) which assessed the development, attachment and behavioural problems in adopted Romanian orphans between three to five years of age. The study revealed that children who had spent less time I institutional car displayed better development outcomes and more securely attached compared to the group of children who had spent more than six months in institutional care. The latter group were insecurely attached and scored less on development outcomes. The disadvantage of cross-cultural studies is the limitations of the range of studies in measuring attitudes, beliefs, cultural practices etc. Reebye (2006) continues to describe the importance of relationship development and its effects on affective, cognitive, social development and moral and ethical attitudes. Child-rearing practices and attachment directly influence these developmental factors, and it is important to remember that parenting practices are in turn influenced by social and cultural traditions. †The factors such as parental intuition, parental attitudes, attributions and beliefs, learned parenting skills, accepted cultural and societal parenting norms, family factors, and environmental factors such as extended family support, poverty or unemployment – are the most influential ones. Each of these or all collectively, can be considered from a cross-cultural perspective. † (Reebye 2006). In today’s modern and often changing world, many cultures also change and adapt, from generation to generation. Changes in societal norms, immigration and such alike affect child-rearing practice considerably, such single parenting is a common family structure, yet in the Victorian times was extremely rare and frowned upon, other changes include inter-racial adoptions, parenting by same sex couples, use of surrogate mothers etc. It can be suggested that children’s social, emotional and cognitive development is indisputably influenced by environmental factors, genetic compositions, attachment and first relationship, cultural traditions and this is reflected in their unique personalities and behaviour. â€Å"In general, there is a need to understand multiple outcomes of child development (cognitive, physical, social, and emotional) within the context of multiple factors (social, economic, cultural, and community-level)† (The National Institute of Health, 2006). The first five years are important to understand the influences and causal links of child development in the early years. This may facilitate children’s well-being and ensure that government policies regarding children are reflective of child development needs, in particular families living in poverty or deprived areas. For example, quality of schools and education will affect cognitive development, and racial, gender, and religious integration will have positive effects on social development. It can be inferred that positive emotional development underpins all other areas of development, and if emotional development is defective then it will be replicated across other areas of development. In essence, all areas of development are interwoven and interdependent. The first five years are crucial for positive development, basic needs such as food, sleep and safety ensures good physical development, providing love, comfort and positive first relationships and attachments is essential to assist emotional development, which will also helps social development, and the correct stimulation and interaction ensures healthy cognitive development. REFERENCES Bakker, S. C. Van Der Meulen, E. M. Buitelaar, J. K. Sandkuijl, L. A. Pauls, D. L. Monsuur, A. J. Vant Slot, R. Minderaa. R. B. Gunning, W. B. Pearson, P. L. Sinke, R. J. (2003) â€Å"A Whole-Genome Scan in 164 Dutch Sib Pairs with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Suggestive Evidence for Linkage on Chromosomes 7p and 15q† American Journal of Human Genetics, Vol. 72, pp. 1251-1260 Bee, H. (2006a) Lifespan Development, Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc Bee, H. (2006b) The Developing Child, Boston, MA: Parson Education, Inc Bowlby, J. (1973) Separation: Anxiety & Anger. Vol. 2 of Attachment and loss London: Hogarth Press; New York: Basic Books; Harmondsworth: Penguin Brain, C and Mukherjee, P. (2005) Understanding Child Psychology, Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd Cohen, D. (1993) The Development of Play, 2nd edition. London: Routledge Cowie, H. (2002) ‘Child Care and Attachment’ in Barnes, P (Ed), Personal, Social and Emotional Development of Children Milton Keynes: Blackwell Publishers Ltd Hinde, R and Hinde, J. (1993) ‘Perspectives on Attachment’ in Parkes, C. M. (Editor), Attachment Across the Life Cycle, Florence, KY, USA: Routledge http://site. ebrary. com/lib/uclan Monuteaux, M. C. Blacker, D. Biederman, J. Fitzmaurice, G and Buka, S. L. (2006) â€Å"Maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring overt and covert conduct problems: a longitudinal study† Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 47, No. 9, pp. 883–890 National Institute of Health. (2006) The science and Ecology Of Early Development (SEED), http://grants. nih. gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-04-113. html Reebye, P. N, Ross. S. E and Jamieson. K (2006) A Literature review of the child-Parent/ Caregiver attachment theory and Cross-Cultural Practices influencing attachment, www. attachmentacrosscultures. org/research/#1: accessed on 19/12/2006 Scarr, S. , & K. McCartney. (1983) ‘How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype-environment effects’, Child Development, Vol. 54, pp 425-35. Shaffer, D. R. (1989) Developmental Psychology, Childhood and Adolescence, 2nd Edition, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Shonkoff, J. P. (2000) From Neurons to Neighbourhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC, USA: National Academy Press, http://site. ebrary. com/lib/uclan/ Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Perceptions of Organized Crime Groups Essay

The United States is run by a democratic government that has laws in place to ensure order and organization. However, there are certain people and groups that wish to compromise and profit personally from breaking these laws. According to Understanding Organized Crime (2007), organized crime can be defined by the members and the activities of a group. There are many crimes in which organized crime might be involved, but what separates individual crime from crimes committed by groups of people is the term organized or organization. Organization has been described as a group of people who cooperate to accomplish objectives or goals. Organized crime has been around for centuries; from Outlaw gangs in the western days that robbed stage coaches, the pony express, and passengers of trains to today’s Blood and Crip gangs that dominate public streets for power over territories and drug sales. Gangs have been around for a long time imposing on the lives and liberties of law abiding cit izens that wish to obey laws. Law abiding citizens have to live in imminent fear that their lives are not disrupted by the actions of these criminal organizations that wish to indulge in crime. In this paper, we will explore the various definitions, perception, characteristics of organized crime, and explore some high profile groups that indulge in different types of crimes. Perception of Organized Crime A University of Phoenix student named ————– was asked how she defined organized crime. ———–’s perception of organized crime has some of the dynamics right such as profit, power, and hatred, but the reading further states that organized crime has no real black and white meaning, besides a group of people uniting for a common goal. Her answer was simple; she stated that organized crime is when a group of people break laws and/or violate others in order to gain power, profit, or promote hatred. Organized crime groups incarcerated within the prison system such as Nuestra Familia and Mexican Mafia, break laws to gain power that lead to some form of profit; depending on what they need such as drugs, cigarettes, or privileges from others. Drug Cartels as the Shower Posse and Spangler Posse of Jamaica, involved themselves in organize crime to profit from illegal drug activity, and groups like the Ku Klux Klan and Aryan Bro therhood are driven by hatred. Author’s Perception Compare to the Definitions in the Readings The author’s perception of the definition in the reading is similar in the meaning of criminal organization, but the book states that crime can be defined by the members and the activities of a group. This means that crime is what each club sees it to be. This is an interesting point, but very true. Many people (e.g. club members) in society commit crimes for different reasons. Some feel it is necessary to break laws due to their limited necessities in life. It does, in no means make it right, but it is the perception of many. The prisons are filled with individuals/criminals that feel they were doing what they needed to do to defend themselves, take care of themselves, or just was presented with opportunity. Some of them sit in prison for years and still feel that their actions of breaking the law were justified. This is the mentality of most organized crime gangs. All they care about is what they want at the time, and not what the implications of breaking the law ca n lead to, until it hits home. ———has personal knowledge of different biker groups and 2 Outlaw Motorcycle Gang’s (OMG’s) and was raised in and around the biker atmosphere, but none of those groups that are mentioned in the book. She has heard the mentality of the OMG’s as opposed to regular Biker Clubs. The 1% clubs run their clubs totally different with no regard for breaking the law, indulging in violence, or starting trouble. 1% Outlaw Biker Gangs One of the clubs that she knows of is called the Chosen Few. The Chosen Few is a 1% motorcycle gang that ———-has first-hand knowledge of. She has known some of their members for a long time and has witnessed how their club is run, aside from other biker clubs that do charitable work in and around their communities, such as toy runs, mentorships, feeding, and clothing the homeless and disable children. In a recent article, from 2010, the Chosen Few M.C. was involved in 3 murders. After this incident, law enforcement officials began to keep a close eye on them and found even more illegal affiliations. The article by Chris Vogel (2011), points out several incidents with Chosen Few members that had negitive run-ins with the law. The article states that agents used confidential informants to buy drugs and guns from members, a member was arrested with more than a kilo of coke, police discovered that a DMV worker was making fake identifications for club members to use i n order to buy guns, and a member was arrested with a gallon of PCP – which led federal agents to Detroit, where another six gallons of PCP were seized. (Feds Catch Chosen Few Motorcycle Club Members Selling Guns & PCP, 2011) According to the characteristics of organized crime with Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMG’s) the Chosen Few, fits the criteria. Characteristics Associated with Organized Criminal Behavior There are certain characteristics of organized criminal behaviors that range from commitment to eminent structure. Commitment is an oath and allegiance to what these clubs, good or bad stand for. It is needed to protect and serve the honor of the organization and all its secrets. Along with this it comes with a sense of power, pride, and protection. Survival is a trait that many organized crime member’s exhibit. It is sometimes used to partake in illegal activities to sustain the worldly goods that obtained. For OMG’s, it may consist of the clubhouse, due paying members, and motorcycles. Punishment is a characteristic that is prevalent in discouraging members from disloyalty, disobedience, or dishonor. These punishments can be in the form of death, beat downs, or in the case of OMG’s fines or snatching of colors. Structure is the final characteristic that needed for an organize crime group to be successful. Like a business is run with a CEO, CFO, and other people in place to ensure order, organized crime groups are ran alike. With a chief officer in place and other members in position to handle different aspects of business to make sure there is no breakdown in with members. In conclusion, organize crime has unique characteristics that has been in place for centuries, and although law enforcement has been investigating the structures of this organizations, it is too many to stop. They are intricate organizations with different reasons as to why they chose to break the law. This is why there is no clear cut definition of organize crime. Mallory, S. (2007). Understanding Organized Crime. Retrieved from University of Phoenix. Vogel, C. (2011). Feds Catch Chosen Few Motorcycle Club Members Selling Guns & PCP. Retrieved from http://blogs.laweekly.com/informer/2011/07/black_biker_gang_chosen_few.php